The restorative power of blue spaces: A 19-country study

N. Fried; A. Wala; L.R. Elliott; S. Pahl; A. Arnberger; S. Bell; G.N. Bratman; M.H.E.M. Browning; L.E. Fleming; J. Grellier; M. Nieuwenhuijsen; A. Ojala; A. Roiko; M. van den Bosch; B.W. Wheeler; M.P. White

doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2026.105739

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The restorative power of blue spaces: A 19-country study

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The restorative power of blue spaces: A 19-country study

N. Fried, A. Wala, L.R. Elliott, S. Pahl, A. Arnberger, S. Bell, G.N. Bratman, M.H.E.M. Browning, L.E. Fleming, J. Grellier, …

Landscape and Urban Planning, Vol.276, pp.1-11

2026

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2026.105739

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Abstract

Blue health

Freshwaters

Marine waters

Nature connectedness

Psychological restoration

Water quality

Living in urbanised areas can deplete cognitive and emotional resources. To help restore them, many people seek out natural locations. Blue spaces (e.g. rivers, lakes, coasts) are among people’s favourite restorative settings, but we know little about the importance of type or quality for psychological restoration, or the role of nature connectedness. Using survey data from 19 countries (n = 17,131), we explored the extent to which participants perceived a recent blue space visit had helped them “rest and recover [their] abilities to focus” and feel “part of nature”. Seventeen blue space types were investigated, spanning marine, lentic (‘standing’) inland, and lotic (‘flowing’) inland waters in both more natural and more built settings, respectively. Accounting for country differences, linear mixed models found all blue space settings were recalled as restorative, with sandy beaches and rural rivers/canals the most, and marshlands the least. Recalled nature connectedness was also high overall, although more natural blue spaces consistently scored higher than built ones. Perceived safety was the quality indicator most associated with both outcomes. Actively engaging with the water (e.g. swimming, paddling) was associated with greater restoration than remaining on-land, and both outcomes showed diminishing marginal returns over time, peaking around 3 h. Path analysis focusing on walking (the most common visit activity) suggested a reciprocal relationship between perceived restoration and nature connectedness. Results provide multi-country evidence that spending recreational time at safe blue spaces can benefit diverse populations by helping them to restore depleted cognitive/emotional resources and connect with the natural world.

Details

Title: The restorative power of blue spaces: A 19-country study
Authors: N. Fried - University of Vienna
A. Wala - University of Vienna
L.R. Elliott - University of Exeter
S. Pahl - University of Vienna
A. Arnberger - BOKU University
S. Bell - Estonian University of Life Sciences
G.N. Bratman - University of Washington
M.H.E.M. Browning - Clemson University
L.E. Fleming - University of Exeter
J. Grellier - University of Exeter
M. Nieuwenhuijsen - Universitat Pompeu Fabra
A. Ojala - Natural Resources Institute Finland
A. Roiko - University of the Sunshine Coast
M. van den Bosch - Universitat Pompeu Fabra
B.W. Wheeler - University of Exeter
M.P. White (Corresponding Author) - University of Vienna
Publication details: Landscape and Urban Planning, Vol.276, pp.1-11
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Date published: 2026
DOI: 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2026.105739
ISSN: 1872-6062
Data Availability: A subset of the data used in this study can be downloaded from the UK Data Service (Elliott, LR, White, MP. 2022. BlueHealth International Survey Dataset, 2017-2018. [data collection]. UK Data Service. SN: 8874, http://doi.org/10.5255/UKDA-SN-8874-2).
Grant note: This project received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under Grant Agreement No. 666773. Data collection in California was supported by the Center for Conservation Biology, Stanford University. Data collection in Canada was supported by the Faculty of Forestry, University of British Columbia. Data collection in Finland was supported by the Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke). Data collection in Australia was supported by Griffith University and the University of the Sunshine Coast. Data collection in Portugal was supported by ISCTE—University Institute of Lisbon. Data collection in Ireland was supported by the Environmental Protection Agency, Ireland. Data collection in Hong Kong was supported by an internal University of Exeter—Chinese University of Hong Kong international collaboration fund. MN and MvdB acknowledge support from the grant CEX2018-000806-S funded by MCIN/AEI/ 10.13039/501100011033, and support from the Generalitat de Catalunya through the CERCA Program. MHEMB was partially supported by the REI Cooperative Action Fund.
Organisation Unit: School of Health - Public Health
Language: English
Record Identifier: 991250587702621
Output Type: Journal article

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Collaboration types: Domestic collaboration; International collaboration
Web Of Science research areas: Ecology; Environmental Studies; Geography; Geography, Physical; Regional & Urban Planning; Urban Studies