Hardsetting in sandy soils: a review

Stephen Lang; Timothy Cavagnaro; David Chittleborough; Nigel Wilhelm; Luke Mosley

doi:10.1071/SR26018

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Hardsetting in sandy soils: a review

Stephen Lang, Timothy Cavagnaro, David Chittleborough, Nigel Wilhelm and Luke Mosley

Soil Research, Vol.64(4), pp.1-17

2026

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1071/SR26018

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Abstract

cohesive soil

compaction

hard setting

hardsetting

hard-setting

high strength soil

penetration resistance

reversible hardening

Hardsetting soils dry with high strength, but soften again upon re-wetting. Affected soil layers can form a transient constraint to root growth, developing and diminishing with fluctuations in soil water. Several studies have explored physical and chemical mechanisms for hardsetting, including the role of certain soil particle arrangements and the presence of cementing agents between sand grains. However, the process is not fully understood and is likely to vary between soils. Traditionally, hardsetting has been aligned with Red-brown earths within the context of Australian agricultural soils; however, this review explores its increasing recognition as a constraint in sandy soils. High strength that restricts root elongation is a common constraint in sandy soils, but the contribution of hardsetting to this problem is largely unknown. Measuring and identifying hardsetting has proven challenging due to the lack of objective standards in quantifying it as a soil property. In-field measurements such as the use of cone penetrometers can provide an indicator of high strength, but only at the present moisture level. Measurements taken from intact or reassembled soils can provide greater value when used to determine how the strength of the soil changes across a range of moisture levels. The management of high-strength agricultural soils that have hardsetting properties may require different approaches to current deep tillage practices, to prevent the natural reconsolidation of hard layers.

Details

Title: Hardsetting in sandy soils: a review
Authors: Stephen Lang (Corresponding Author) - Adelaide University
Timothy Cavagnaro - Flinders University
David Chittleborough - University of the Sunshine Coast
Nigel Wilhelm - South Australian Research and Development Institute
Luke Mosley - Adelaide University
Publication details: Soil Research, Vol.64(4), pp.1-17
Publisher: CSIRO Publishing
Date published: 2026
DOI: 10.1071/SR26018
ISSN: 1838-6768
Copyright note: © 2026 The Author(s) (or their employer(s)). Published by CSIRO Publishing. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND)
Data Availability: Data sharing is not applicable as no new data were generated or analysed during this study.
Grant note: This work has been supported by a graduate research scholarship provided through the Grains Research and Development Corporation, and by the Cooperative Research Centre for High Performance Soils, whose activities are funded by the Australian Government’s Cooperative Research Centre Program.
Organisation Unit: School of Science, Technology and Engineering
Language: English
Record Identifier: 991231326002621
Output Type: Journal article

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