Biomechanical Characteristics of Double-Arm Backstroke—A Specialist Freestyle Technique Employed by Severely Impaired Para Swimmers

Yu-Hsien Lee; Dawn N. O'Dowd; Luke Hogarth; Brendan Burkett; Carl Payton

doi:10.3390/app16125881

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Biomechanical Characteristics of Double-Arm Backstroke—A Specialist Freestyle Technique Employed by Severely Impaired Para Swimmers

Yu-Hsien Lee, Dawn N. O'Dowd, Luke Hogarth, Brendan Burkett and Carl Payton

Applied Sciences, Vol.16(12), pp.1-16

2026

DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/app16125881

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Abstract

Paralympics

cerebral palsy

activity limitation

biomechanics

body posture

This exploratory study compares the Froude efficiency (eta F), intra-cyclic speed fluctuation (ICSF) and other performance determinants between two freestyle swimming techniques: double-arm backstroke and front crawl, and then demonstrates how Para swimmers with hypertonia differ from non-disabled swimmers when performing double-arm backstroke. Three-dimensional motion analysis was undertaken on three Para swimmers with hypertonia (sport classes 3-4) and eight non-disabled swimmers performing a simulated double-arm backstroke with lower limbs immobile. The non-disabled group also completed front crawl trials. Swimming speed, stroke frequency, stroke length and eta F were significantly greater, and ICSF significantly lower, during front crawl than during double-arm backstroke in non-disabled swimmers. Para swimmers' double-arm backstroke speed was 45-52% that of the non-disabled group; their stroke length was 58-69% shorter and stroke frequency 26-53% higher. Non-disabled swimmers demonstrated higher peak elbow extension velocity during the push phase than Para swimmers (6.36 +/- 1.26 rad center dot s-1 vs. 1.50-1.81 rad center dot s-1) and their eta F was approximately double the Para swimmers' (0.33 +/- 0.02 vs. 0.14-0.18). Para swimmers displayed poorer body alignment than the non-disabled group; ICSF did not differ between groups. Double-arm backstroke is slower and less efficient than front crawl. Hypertonia may reduce the efficiency of double-arm backstroke by diminishing propulsive movements and worsening body orientation.

Details

Title: Biomechanical Characteristics of Double-Arm Backstroke—A Specialist Freestyle Technique Employed by Severely Impaired Para Swimmers
Authors: Yu-Hsien Lee - Manchester Metropolitan University
Dawn N. O'Dowd - Manchester Metropolitan University
Luke Hogarth - University of the Sunshine Coast
Brendan Burkett - University of the Sunshine Coast
Carl Payton (Corresponding Author) - Manchester Metropolitan University
Publication details: Applied Sciences, Vol.16(12), pp.1-16
Publisher: MDPI AG
Date published: 2026
DOI: 10.3390/app16125881
ISSN: 2076-3417
Copyright note: © 2026 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license.
Data Availability: The raw data are provided in the Supplementary Materials provided.
Grant note: This research was supported by funding from the International Paralympic Committee and UK Sport.
Organisation Unit: School of Health - Sports & Exercise Science; School of Health and Behavioural Sciences - Legacy
Language: English
Record Identifier: 991246170302621
Output Type: Journal article

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